Cadences for the Rest Of Us

While studying theory and composition at university, one of the first things they talked to us about was voice leading. Voice leading is simply trying to find the best way of connecting the different voices in your harmony. You would start with a Cantus Firmus (fixed song) and work at writing counterpoint to that melody.

A big part of voice leading and counterpoint are cadences. Cadences are simply a way of ending musical phrases and ideas. There are a number of different cadences that happen in music. These are still just as relevant today although not used in exactly the same way. Today we're going to look at the different 'classical' cadences and see how they are used in today's music.


Following the Rules

When classical (i.e. classical, romantic, baroque etc.) musicians sat down to compose, there was a huge emphasis placed on voice leading and counterpoint. Classical musicians were preoccupied with the importance of the various independent lines, maintaining the voices and making sure there were no holes in their part writing (e.g. parallel 5ths and octaves). There were (still are) a whole set of rules that musicians would follow to make sure all of these things were taken care of. There were also other rules, like certain intervals (e.g. dim. 5th) and leaps that were to be avoided. Since the 20th century counterpoint has fallen out in place for more block and parallel lines. Most of the rules that were made for writing for band in the classical tradition were thrown out in the jazz era. Jazz musicians focused more on parallel lines, 'dissonant'* harmonies and swing. Voice leading though, is still an important part of writing and arranging in various styles.

*What at one time was considered dissonant (unpleasant, tense) may later be considered consonant (pleasing, no tension). It often happens that once people hear a dissonant interval or harmony often enough, it no longer is considered dissonant. Other general practices, (like always having to resolve suspended sonorities or ending on the I chord) no longer become particularly necessary. One of the trademarks of a innovator is someone who takes well known conventions and throws them out the window. Of course it helps if they do it in a musical and interesting way, instead of going against the grain just to be different.

The Perfect Cadence

With voice leading, it's important that the individual voices move in the proper way. There are predetermined ways to end phrases and pieces. For example classical musicians would always end a piece with a perfect cadence (i.e. a V-I progression in root position). This had an element of finality to it that was the norm and part of the style. When writing out a V-I, there are a number of ways to arrange the four voices*. If it was in the middle of a piece, the cadence had to be voiced a certain way, if it was the end of the piece, it had to be voiced another way. If you're wondering why most of the symphonies you hear end in the same way (the big repeating V to I), this is why. Beyond the theory with the individual voices, to most of us a perfect cadence is simply a V-I chord progression. This is considered the strongest progression in music simply because as soon as we hear that V chord, we immediately want to go back to the I.

*Classical musicians would often write out their voice leading in four voices (separate lines). This was a convention that started early in Western Music and is still done today, even though we often hear sonorities made up of more than 4 voices.

The Plagal Cadence

Beyond the V-I cadence, the other most used progression is the IV-I. This is referred to as the plagal cadence. Of course the voice leading rules that applied to the perfect cadence also applied to these. Whereas the perfect cadence had a finality to it, the IV-I progression isn't quite as strong. Where the perfect cadence felt more like a period, the plagal cadence was more like a comma. The IV almost feels like it could go anywhere; it doesn't have the strong desire to go back to the I. In this way the IV-I would often be used in the first part of a phrase letting the listener know that you weren't quite completely done.

The Imperfect Cadence


Whereas the perfect and plagal cadences both returned to the I, this cadence ends on the V. This cadence has much more of 'suspended' feeling. You are literally left hanging and seem to be waiting to hear the rest of the musical idea. It mostly stems from the strong urge of the V to return to the I. But in this case, it doesn't resolve.

Beyond the Basics

If you've studied music theory, you'll notice that these cadences are still the backbone of most of our music. There are books filled with 3 chord songs that use these progressions only. Don't be fooled by their simplicity, they're still very effective. If you're just beginning on your writing journey, don't be afraid to fully explore these basic progressions. They're effective because they work. Once you've gotten used to using these, you'll be able to use them in your own creations at will. Also, after using these for an extended period of time, you should be able to pick them out immediately in a song. Try listening to a song that has one of these basic progressions and see if you can tell what the chords are without your instrument.

So What??

So how can we use this in our writing? By knowing some of these conventions, we can use them (and go against them) at will. For example, try writing a short 4 bar phrase and end it with either a plagal or imperfect cadence. Notice how the music seems to begging for another phrase. Now write another phrase and this time end with a perfect cadence. See how the whole 8 bar phrase now seems like a logical sentence. Now that you know this, you can use this or go against convention on purpose. Try writing the piece but don't use any perfect cadences until your chorus. In fact try not to use the V chord at all. You'll notice that the cadence may have a different effect if it's only used once at a pivotal point (like at the end of the chorus) in the song.

How To Sing Harmonies

Harmonies. They almost seem to be invisible on some tracks, yet on others, they seem to make the whole song. Most music you hear on the radio (pop/rock/MOR) is filled with harmonies. Sometimes it's obvious, usually it isn't. A great harmony can take a track to the next level. Yet, there seems to be lots of confusion about how to do these or where to put them.


They're Out There

If you listen closely to the vocal tracks on most pop songs, you'll find tons of harmonies. You'll not only hear them on the chorus but peppered throughout the rest of the track too. Most vocalists like to stick a harmony on a couple of lines throughout the song, not just the chorus. A lot of the time, it's layered in the background, just lifting the line without making it too obvious. Sometimes the vocal will be doubled, sometimes it's the lead an octave above or below, and of course the traditional 3rd above is always popular. Doubling and singing the same line an octave above or below is also vary effective in bringing something extra to the line without having a full blown harmony there. Some artists will almost always double their vocal line.

Different Strokes

What people don't realize is that each style of music has it's own way of dealing with harmonies and vocals. Some styles (like metal) generally don't like 3 part harmonies unless it's for a special effect. Other genres (like country) use harmonies so much, that it's pretty much part of the style. Jazz of course has it's more complicated harmonies, but usually used more in vocal groups (versus the intimate trio setting). Certain types of rock and indie rock also use different harmonies to create different moods (Alice In Chains is a great example of unique harmonies being part of their style). RnB harmonies also can go beyond the typical intervals to great effect.

Some Of The Rules

Straight ahead harmonies follow simple rules that can be used as a starting point (as well as ending point) for some of your songs. Most harmonies will follow the chord or 'harmony' behind the vocal line. Depending on your melody, your harmony will usually be a third (or fourth) above (or below) that. For example if your chord is a C major and your vocal melody starts of an E note, goes up to an F, and returns to and E, your harmony line will be a third above that (i.e. G, to A, back to G). However, if your vocal melody line starts on a G, goes up to an A and back to a G, your harmony line will be a fourth above that (i.e a C, to a D, back to a C). It doesn't always work exactly this way because your melody doesn't always start on a convenient note, but it's a good starting point. Also, depending on the genre, different harmonies will apply. If you're singing harmony on a blues song, or a reggae song, different harmonies will apply. Still, a third is a great way to start.

Get It Going

The best way to get started in using harmonies is to just get started. Don't worry about too much of the technical stuff to begin with. Just try singing along with songs and try doing the harmonies. We'll go into some exercises that will help you along the way but it's best to just get going. A lot of vocalists I've worked with didn't work on harmonies as much because they were a mystery and had trouble at the beginning. Try working on these and see how far you get. The best harmony singers I've ever used had a great ear and would come up with the best harmonies. There are two ways to go about figuring out and working on harmonies; a) strictly technical (following the line exactly) and b) experimentation (not following the line). These both occur in music for different reasons. Most of the time when signers are in 3 (or more) part harmony, you have to be a bit more strict about the lines because you don't want the different harmony lines tripping over each other. The second happens a lot with just one line of harmony where the harmony line won't follow the melody line exactly. Examples of this is where the melody will move but the harmony will stay on one note (or move around very little).

Strictly Technical

Start by playing a chord on the piano. Keep it simple to start. With your right hand play a simple melody. Start with using chord tones only. The example listed above is a great example to start with. Play a C chord. Play the melody above that: C to D back to C. Now you're going to sing the harmony. Play the E to F just above the C to D you just played. Hear those notes in your head. Sing them and try to remember them. Now play the chord with your left hand, the melody notes C and D with your right hand and sing the harmony notes E and F all at the same time. It's important when you work on this that you get your pitch right. Once you get your notes right, try and hear the notes you're singing with the original notes of the melody. This is the most important part; you need to hear both parts at once. This is where most vocalists fall behind. The reason for this is because whenever you sing harmonies, you're always singing with another person. That other person is usually the lead. Your line must meld with theirs seamlessly. That can't happen if you aren't listening carefully to what they're doing. This listening has to be done as soon as you start practicing harmonies. The best harmony singers I've ever heard didn't just have great pitch, they had great timing, and most of all they had great ears.

A Little Experimentation

The other way to get some harmonies  going is to simply start singing and see if you can 'hear' another line, it doesn't matter if the line is 'technically' correct i.e. a correct harmony line moving in perfect parallel with the lead vocal. It just matters that you try and start to 'hear' these things. Again start with a simple line and then start singing lines above (or below) that line. Try to stay above or below the melody; harmony lines as a general rule don't cross the melody. Try as many variations as you can. Remember to try lines below as well as above your original. The value in this is that after you become used to singing harmonies, this is the best way to come up with interesting lines. Line made up are almost always better than lines carefully constructed (this may not be the case in strict harmonies or really involved arrangements) . If used in conjunction with the technical method, you'll find you're on your way to becoming a great harmony singer.

One Liners

Because some melodies just around a lot, or don't stick to chord tones, a 3rd or fourth line won't work. Sometimes, because the chords are moving and your line doesn't or vice-versa a moving line won't work. Sometimes when nothing else fails, singing a single note over the entire phrase is best. Not only is it a good idea in some cases, in some genres (like indie rock) a single note above or below the melody will actually sound better (or cooler to your ears). Other styles of rock also like to use one liners like an octave below to a line to thicken it and make it sound darker.

In The Mix

Most of the time a harmony line will play second role to the melody. This usually works the best and like mentioned, it's a great way to bring out that melody. When it comes to having more than one harmony part, you're going to have to go in and do some tweaking to make it sound right. Depending on your harmonies and how many people you have singing any one part, the harmonies are going to have to be mixed right. It's not always all completely even. We tend to like the higher harmony parts better, so they're usually mixed a little higher, or at least heard better. If it's a three (or more) part harmony, be careful with the inner voices. If one of these sticks out too much, it'll sound weird to our ears. Our ear naturally pick up three things. First, we hear the lead and for a lot of people, that's all they really notice. Second, we'll hear the highest harmony, third we'll hear the lowest note and finally we're able to discern the inner voices. To most people those inner voices are almost invisible. A lot of musicians try and pull those inner voices out to make their music more interesting. The point is that unless it's something you want to do on purpose, it'll sound strange to our ears if those middle lines are the most prominent.


The Double

Once a special effect, it's now standard for artists to double their vocal line. This is used in every genre of music from pop to rap. There's something special that happens when a vocal line is doubled. Keep in mind that the line has to be sung twice and not just copied and pasted. The latter results in a chorus/phase type effect (or even make the line completely disappear) whereas doubling the vocal will thicken it. Some artists do this numerous times. While effective to bring out a vocal line, it also takes away from the intimacy of a single vocal; the idiosyncrasies and special inflections of the original vocal may get lost. One effect that a lot rock artists like to use is to keep the verse a single vocal line and then double it at the chorus. This really makes the chorus stand out and keeps the intimacy of the verse intact. Remember too that often the harmonies are doubled just as much as the lead. This has the same effect making the harmonies sound bigger (and somewhat smoother) than just the one line. Remember to make the double as close to the original line as possible or you'll end up with a useless mess.

Start Your Harmony Engines

There are so many ways to treat a vocal line. Harmonies are one of the best ways to really pull out a line. Plus, people just love the sound of multiple voices. It's a powerful tool. Try some of the other things mentioned in this article: doubling, octave doubling, alternate lines etc. Even if your genre doesn't generally use a lot of harmonies, you may start something that changes everything. At the very least, you'll create your own unique voice.

The Art of Arrangement: Bass

When it comes down to arranging music (any type of music), one of your prime considerations is the bass. In most styles of music, the bass plays a major role. In other styles it plays a simple supporting role; supporting, but just as important never the less. The bass makes up 1/2 of the major support in modern music, the drums being the other. It defines the groove, the feel and the underlying harmony.

The History of the Bassline

The bass line has always had a huge impact on Western Music. At one time, all a composer had to do was write the melody and bass line. They wouldn't even fill in the accompaniment.
They would use a numbering system (called 'figured bass') to let the accompanists know what to play. Around the time of Bach, when counterpoint was the way that composers wrote, writing a good bass line was an education in it's own right. In fact, Bach wrote down the 'rules' to writing a good bass line that are just as valid to this day. 

Just the Root

Most of the time in popular music, the bass player is relegated to simply playing the roots of the chords.While effective most of the time, there are tons of ways to make the bassline more interesting. First of all there is the falling or climbing bass line. This is where the bass will play a scalar or chromatic line against a number of changes. These are usually pretty effective in bringing out a harmony or part without taking too much away from the melody or other parts. These go a long way in making an interesting bass line, using more linear lines instead of the usual jumping form root to root. The use of these type of bass lines usually result in slash chords written for the rest of the band. Slash chords are usually other notes in the chord (e.g. the 3rd, 5th, or 7th) moved to the bass, but don't it doesn't have to be. Any note can go with any chord, as long it's right for the song.

Harmony used with descending bass line:

regular harmony:                            C G Am F G C Dm

bass line:                                       C B A G F E D

harmony with bass line:                  C G/B Am F G C/E Dm*

*This line is a bit long in the tooth but you get the idea.

Jazz Cats

One style of music where the bass is paramount is jazz. If it's straight forward traditional jazz, the bass player will typically be carrying the beat with a steady bass. They will usually play quarters with some embellishment added for variety. There are many things involved in playing bass in a jazz band, one of them being improvisation and having a 'dialogue' with the other players. If you're writing out a jazz arrangement for bass, most of the time you'll just indicate the chords and let the player be. If there are special notes in your arrangement as far as bass notes, you'll want to include them in the chord names to let all of the musicians (especially the bass) know what's happening at that particular time. Let the bass player choose the notes, you just indicate the harmony. If there is a specific line that is part of the head, then you'll want to indicate that. One other thing to note is that if there are any special shots, you just have to indicate them in the score. Jazz bass players will use the fifth and octave (see below), but also use other chord tones and chromatic notes to create interesting, moving bass lines. Unless you're a bass player, leave these to the pros.

I Go Out Walking

One thing that a bass player will do is walk. Walking is simply taking steps (either chromatic or scalar) between roots. This is done in almost every style of music. Jazz players walk consistently between the changes. Certain styles of rock and country will do it between certain chord changes. To make your bass line more interesting, you'll want to incorporate some walking. How much depends on the style of music and the effectiveness of the line. Sometimes a couple of notes connecting two chords at the right time is just enough for it to be effective. Just try it a couple of times throughout the arrangement. Listen back and then add or take away accordingly. (I usually find myself taking away). Try chromatic just as much as scalar patterns. Be careful in that if you sit on one of these notes long enough, or put enough of an accent on it, that passing note will then become part of your harmony. That is, since you've put so much 'emphasis' on it, the rest of the players will probably want to make a change at that spot. That means putting these walking notes on weak beats (stay away from the 1st and 3rd beat) and not letting them ring out too long (short note values).

Pedal on the Vamp

One thing that will get almost any dance tune going is a repeated bass line. This is where the bass will stay on one note or play a vamp while the other players continue with the chord changes. These can be used for a couple of changes or for a whole song  Pedals are used all the time in almost every genre of music. These are used for great effect in dance music since it reinforces the constant groove. In traditional theory it's referred to as a pedal, in jazz it's known as a vamp. Bach would use pedals in his music; usually the root or 5th on the 'pedal' (lowest notes) on an organ while running a moving harmony over top. In pop, dance and jazz it's a repeating bass line over and over while the rest of the band will play the different changes. This isn't just used in dance music though, rock players do this all of the time. In fact, if you have a set of chord changes in a pop or rock tune, try a single repeating bass line instead of just following the roots. Or have a vamp over the verse and then change the bass line with the harmony in the chorus.

The Fifth/Fourth/Octave

Another thing that bass players do is the use of the fifth and the octave. Sometimes if a chord is held for a long time or the bass player wants to add some notes to a given harmony, they'll add the fifth (or fourth below, i.e. same note) or the octave. Sometimes this procedure is used so much, it becomes a part of the style of music. Bass lines in bluegrass and country use this alteration so much so that it has become an essential part of the style. Some other types of music (especially various types of folk music) relies on this same device. But this isn't relagated to just country, it's used all over the place. From metal to dance and everything in between, the bass player will often go to the fifth when playing a bass line. The way it is used varies from style to style of course. A metal player will never alternate between the root and the fifth in straight quarters. But they will play the root, followed by the fifth in various rhythms and repetitions. The same goes for the use of the octave. One of the defining elements of disco was the alternating octave bass line. Funk slap bass and various styles of dance music use this figure a lot. Bass players love the fifth and the octave because it leaves the harmony wide open for the rest of the band; i.e. it doesn't define the chord (major, minor, 7th) other than the fact that it doesn't have a flat fifth.

Get Real

If you're going to take your arrangement and try to put it down on record, you may want to save yourself some hassle and get a real player to do it for you. Not only does this save you time, it will make your recording that much better and can be a great learning experience. If you're doing an RnB remix of one of your songs and know somebody who plays that style, try and get them in on the recording session. The player will add two things that you probably can't. One is feel. Every style has its own feel. Players in various styles just play a certain way that adds authenticity to the track. A jazz drummer doesn't hit like a rock drummer and vice versa. It's the same for bass. The player well versed in the style will have a certain feel that would be hard to replicate; no matter how great your sequencing chops. The other thing a player will bring is knowledge of the style. If you've written a basic bass line for them to follow, they may notice things that aren't obvious to someone not as well versed with the style. For example, if you've written just roots for the bass all the way through, they may suggest some alternate bass lines that may be more effective than your own. RnB bass players love to use inversions and alternate notes for the bass. Likewise if it was a metal tune, the player might notice if your changes sounded a little dated or clichéd. If a player makes some suggestions, take note and consider them. It makes the whole experience better for you and for them. If you leave your ego at the door, you may be surprised at how much you learn. Also, everybody likes to be part of the process and be heard. If a player's suggestions are seriously considered, they usually will feel better about the session and look forward to working with you more.

Bass Sounds

In certain styles of music, the actual bass sound is critical to the authenticity of the style. Some styles of dance music are defined by the sounds of the drums (especially the kick) and bass. There is a difference not only the notes played but the sound of the instrument. The same goes for certain styles of rock and pop. Reggae bass has a different sound than funk. Jazz uses the stand up bass but not always. Different genres of rock have different bass sounds. Sometimes it's the full bottom bass we're used to but in other styles it may be more mid-rangey with some distortion added for effect. The different genres of dance music rely heavily on the bass. A house bass line is completely different than a techno bass line. Not only is the bass line different, the actual sound of the bass will be different. Some genres of dance music rely more on synth lines. The actual variation of different synth bass sounds used in dance music is another post in itself. Suffice to say (particularly for dance music), pay as much attention to the sound used, as the lines used.

Recording The Bass

If you've ever spend any time mixing, you'll know the trials and tribulations of trying to mix the bass properly. This is another element of the style. How much room does the bass take up in that style? It's not just a matter of making the bass sound big. While you may think that there isn't much variation, there is. The bass in RnB takes much more room than it does in most rock. Even though the bass is of huge importance in jazz, it's usually mixed quite conservatively (i.e. in terms of how 'big' it is) compared to RnB or rock. Just put in a hip-hop song and then follow it immediately with a jazz ensemble and you'll see what I mean. (The jazz tune will probably be mixed much quieter also...part of the style.) Even between different artists within the same genre of music, there is a huge difference in how 'big' or how much room the bass takes up. Some rock artists want the big bass, but others want to make sure that the guitars take up just as much space. Remember, not everything is going to be huge. Something has to take precedence over the other. You can't have a big bassy kick, with a thick bass and bottom heavy guitars. There are too many things fighting for the same space and things are just going to get messy. If you're recording as well as arranging, these are things that you're going to have to consider when putting it all together. If you're doing any recording or mixing of bass, remember how important it is to the music: make room for it. If needed, try adding a boost around 1-2kHz or so (depending on the bass sound). It will help bring out the bass line, especially on smaller systems. Also check your mixes in a variety of situations, that's the only way you'll know for sure if it translates well.

Take The Time

When composing or arranging songs, always take time to consider the bass. Even if it doesn't take a leading role in the style of music you're arranging, it's always an important part. For every style of music, there are conventions and 'rules' that apply to that style. Make sure to take the time and learn the style and try to get the best possible 'bottom line' that you can. If at all possible, try different bass lines and different bass sounds. Try each in a mix and see how they fit. Back in Bach's time, composers were encouraged to make the best bass line they could. It didn't have to just carry the harmony, it also had to be as interesting and singable as the melody. This is something we should all still aspire to.